BUSINESS ASSIGNMENT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

BUSINESS ASSIGNMENT - Essay Example The segmentation has been done by using demographics and behavioural strategies. The target market has been chosen after identifying the size and profitability of the segments. After developing the positioning strategy, the marketing mix has been created for the target market. Finally, an overview of the financial plan of Manga Cafe has been discussed. IDENTIFIED PROBLEM The business plan of launching Manga Cafe in London appears to be a unique idea as there is currently not such cafe in London however, because of the aggressive competition among the international brands in the UK Cafe industry; Manga Cafe needs a very well-organised and efficient marketing plan. INDUSTRY COMPETITION Various coffee brands are operating in London; however, the three largest market leaders include Starbucks, Costa Coffee and Nero. The following positioning map shows the positioning of major cafe providers in London based on their quality of services and prices. Starbucks being the market leader is offe ring average quality but at very high prices, therefore, shares of Starbucks are declining not only in UK but in most of its major markets (Bishopric, 2011). Costa is expanding throughout UK because of its reasonable prices and better quality and in 2010/2011, company aims to open 130 more outlets in the UK (Bakeryinfo, 2010). Nero is considered as a cheap brand which offers value through high quality products and services. Positioning Map THE PRODUCT/SERVICE DESCRIPTION Manga Cafes are very popular among the Japanese communities. The increasing number of Japanese residents in the UK builds a strong demand for Manga Cafes in the UK, European and foreign markets. Since there is no Manga Cafe in London yet, therefore, launch of Manga Cafe in London appears to be a feasible business option. This cafe will fulfil the increasing demand of Japanese comics in Europe. The cafe will offer a platform to the people where they can come and enjoy reading Japanese comics. Moreover, additional ser vices will also be offered to entertain the visitors such as Japanese food, internet facility, games and DVDs. The visitors will be charged based on their duration of stay in the cafe. MARKETING PLAN Market Segmentation To segment the market, demographics and behavioral segmentation strategies have been used. In demographics segmentation, the consumers have been segmented based on their age, profession and nationality. Age: The age group structure of London in 2001 is given below (Office for National Statistics, 2002). Age Structure of People in London Source: Office for National Statistics Profession: The second demographic variable is profession and in London people belonging to different professions such as education, workers, professionals, unemployed reside. Nationality: The third demographic variable is nationality and since Manga Cafe is a Japanese cafe therefore, only Japanese nationals will be directly targeted. However, the total population of London in 2009 was 7,686,000 and it includes around people with 34 different nationalities (London.gov.uk, 2010). Table: London Population by Nationality Source: London.gov.uk In behavioral segmentation, the consumers who will be having knowledge, interest and positive attitude towards Japanese culture will be

Management Accounting (performance indication, product and service Essay

Management Accounting (performance indication, product and service costing, budgeting) - Essay Example Product and service costing analysis will clear out the unnecessary costs that are being incurred by the institution thus taking corrective actions for the same. Through the estimation of the incremental budgeting we can assess as to the implementation of the same is required or not thereby suggesting other budgetary procedure which may or may not be implemented by the institution based on the present circumstances. The University of Newland has therefore adopted measures through the mode of financial tools like return on capital employed, incremental budgeting, standard costing and various other cost restricting tools in order to increase the profit margin of the organisation. These tools would also help them in setting a probable standard for themselves so that any deviation from the same could be anticipated beforehand. Dealing with Performance Indication From the given data related to the project of Management accounting we can observe that few performance tools have been used as in the separate subject department is considered to be an investment centre. Return on investment is one of the main tools for calculation of the various investment centres mentioned in the paper. The total income earned by the institution is 185mn pound which also gives us the estimation of the capital employed or to be employed by the organisation (Mowen, 2011, p.554). However, the targeted return of 7% on capital employed is the return to be generated from the operations of the institution. The assets here have to be forecasted in order to bring a change in the operating cost so much so that the target could be easily achieved. If higher productivity is achieved with lower manpower so that the cost of labour can be saved; this in turn will be the major factor behind building the base for the return of the capital employed. As the pay rates will rise over the time span, labour hour saving will help in the generation of positive return on capital employed. It is calculated as: ROC E= Net Operating income after tax (Morrell, 2001, p.131) Capital Employed Here investment centre means the responsibility that is designated to the manager for executing the responsibility of managing cost and revenue of the organisation. They are responsible for generating income and executing responsibility related to investment base (Drury, 2007, p.396). The responsibility centre has three sub heads namely, cost centre, profit centre and investment centre. The measurement of the performance in the cost centre depicts the efficiency of operation in quantitative terms of inputs used for the production of the given output. From the word profit we can understand the difference between the expenditure made of acquiring the input and the income generated from output of the organisation. Hence it is quite possible to derive both the effectiveness and the efficiency from the profit centre. On the other hand, the possibility or scope of a probable investment opportunity gives rise to an i nvestment cen

Sherlock Holmes Essay Essay Example for Free

Sherlock Holmes Essay Essay Arthur Conan Doyle has written a number of short stories about a fictional character called Sherlock Holmes and his trusted work mate Dr. Watson. Together they solve mysteries using the art of the reasoner and imaginative thinking. I have recently been studying the adventure of the speckled band among other short stories. Holmes is portrayed as an intelligent crime solver, with quick thinking skills and a sharp mind. We find straight away in the story that Dr. Watson and Holmes are good friends as Holmes wakes Watson up early especially because he thinks he would want to learn about the case right from the start. Holmes has an eye for detail, which we realise near the beginning of the story as he can clearly describe how the woman travelled to meet him, by the half return ticket and mud splatters on her jacket. The crime is a murder; set it the mansion belonging Dr. Grimesby Roylott in Stoke Moran. Dr. Roylott was in great debt and rented out most of his property to gypsies. He was a very lonely, bitter, miserable man. The murder is described by the victims sister, Helen Stoner, she saw her sister just before she died and experienced some of the strange things that happened to her sister on the night of her death, afraid and worried she turned to Holmes for his help. There are many suspects in this story, such as the gypsies, or the animals that the doctor kept in the grounds. But the prime suspect in this scenario was the doctor himself, he had the motive, if his daughters should marry then the money from their mothers will, would go to them. Therefore if they were to die before they got married the doctor would keep the money. It is an unusual murder because the room in which it took place was locked, with the windows closed and metal bars put there. On visiting the scene Holmes finds some peculiar abnormalities with the room, there is a bell- pull, which isnt fixed to a bell, just the ceiling. Also the bed is nailed to the floor and there is an air vent between this room and the doctors. Holmes also looked in the doctors room and found a bowl of milk on top of a safe also a small dog lead hung on the corner of the bed and tied to make a loop of whipcord. Holmes finds these clues using the art of the reasoner and his imaginative thinking, to work out how the previous murder happened and when the next was about to happen. Holmes also uses the art of the reasoner in another short story- Silver blaze, where the prize racing horse is stolen and its owner beaten to death in Kings Pyland, Holmes works out that it cant have been anyone other than John Straker or his wife, as no-one else could have made it so that curried mutton was the dinner for the stable boys, so as to hide the taste of the sleeping drug put in it. So that Straker could take the horse out of the stable at night, in order to harm the horse and fix the race. The murder weapon was an Indian snake; the doctor kept it in a safe, but whenever one of his daughters was to be married, he would let it out. It would make its way through the air vent; down the dummy bell- pull and onto the bed to kill whatever was lying bellow it. It was then called back with a whistle, to the doctors room and put back in the safe. The red herring in this story could be the cheetah and the baboon, as they could have come into the house and killed the girl, also the gypsies as there were some around at the time of the murder, and the before the victim died she said the speckled band which could have meant the spotted scarves they are often found wearing and a band of gypsies. The tension is built up when Holmes and Watson stay in Helen Stoners room to find out what killed her sister and could possibly kill her. As they sit in darkness listening to the night sounds outside, waiting for what they dont know at this stage, then Holmes realises that a snake has just entered the room and scares it off with a light. The twist in the tale is right at the end, when, because the snake is scared back through the ventilator, it gets confused and bites Dr. Roylott. So his greedy and malicious plan backfires, and he is killed. I chose to write about this story because I think that it has a lot of good points to describe, and it is a great, gripping story. Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Arthur Conan Doyle section.

Introduction To Gay Marriage English Language Essay

Introduction To Gay Marriage English Language Essay The society today tends to stick to what they know and hold on to the familiar. Therefore when something unfamiliar comes along the society resists acceptance, instead they dismiss the issue by denying its existence. Unfortunately, gay marriage is one of the issues that the society has come to refuse to accept and deal with. Maybe, it is because they do not know how to approach it or maybe the issue just took them by surprise and they just need a moment to recover. For whatever reason, the society has chosen to ban gay marriage in Palau. Same sex marriage is new to us all, I completely understand that fact. It was not until recently that we found out that there are certain people that are into liking the same sex. However if we come to think of it, many things regarding marriage, has all, at one point in life, been new to us. In fact when I asked my grandfather, whose name is Kanai Edesomel, what traditional marriage was like back in the old days he said that marriage, traditionally, was mostly arranged. My grandfather went on to say that children back then did not have a say in who they were going to marry. The parents were the ones that chose who their children was going to marry based on a persons character, family background, and how the marriage is going to benefit their own family. Based on what my grandfather told me about marriage in the old days and how marriage is today, I would have to say that Palau has come a long way from arranged marriage. In an article published in the New York Times, William Saletan pointed out how we, members of the society, dont realize how marriage has continuously changed over time, usually in ways so congenial. In the same article William Saletan noted that not only is change part of the tradition but tradition will be part of the change.(Saletan) We, Palauans have slowly broke away from our traditional way in marriage, because whether we realize it or not the world we live in today demands change from us. We are becoming diversely knowledgeable therefore we have to adjust traditions to match the world we live in today and the knowledge we have; and if not adjust traditions we shall make new traditions. In being able to adjust and come up with new traditions we shall become more accepting of same sex marriage. This is all your opinion-not research. We have to stop and consider people in our society who are gay, they are not doing anything wrong; they are just being who they are. Gay cannot help the way they feel. During the 1990s a scientist named Laura S. Allen did an experiment on the human brain. For her experiment, Laura compared the brain of heterosexuals and homosexuals. She came to find that that the hypothalamus, which is the part of the brain that is connected to the sexual drive and function, for homosexuals are bigger that hypothalamus for heterosexual. (Biological Basis for Homosexuality) Therefore, I can say, based on Allens experiment results, that gay people do not choose to be gay; they are born gay. The society should not deny gay people marriage because they think that gay people choose to be this way. I asked a couple of Palauans who are against gay marriag, why they chose to be against it? Most of them said that they think that being gay is not right and people that are gay are sinner. That is why I say that gay people does not choose to be gay, they are born this way. Another study that was done on homosexuals to determine whether they were born gay or not, that is quite similar to Laura Allens experiment also came up with the similar results as Laura Allens experiment. The experiment I am talking about is by Simon LaVay, who also studies both homosexuals and heterosexual brains and compared them.(Biological Basis of Homosexuality) Although, the overall study on whether people are born gay or choose to be gay is inconclusive, there are been evidence shown that gay people were born the way they are, just like experiments I have told you about. We can never know for sure if gay people were born this way or chose the path that they are on. However, if you think about it, no one in their right minds would choose an identity that is descriminated and hated by the society. Now that I have mentioned descrimination let me just tell you that by denying gay people marriage we are descriminating gay people. We are always enforcing equality in our society, and yet we are not treating gay people equally by not allowing them to marry and receive the benefits that any traditional couple will receive when they marry. In the constitution of the Republic of Palau under Article 4, section five it clearly says, Every person shall be equal under the law and shall be entitled to equal protection. The government shall take no action to discriminate against any person on the basis of sex, race, place of origin, language, religion or belief, social status or clan affiliation except for the preferential treatment of citizens, for the protection of minors, elderly, indigent, physically or mentally handicapped, and other similar groups, and in matters concerning intestate succession and domestic relations. No person shall be treated unfairly in legislative or executive inve stigations.(Constitution of the Republic of Palau.1979) By denying gay people marriage we are descriminating against peoples race and believes, if that does not go against the constitution I do not know what does. I all comes down to morality, what do we think is right to do? While deciding we shall consider the changes in marriage throughout the years. At the same time consider that gay people cannot change who they are, just like we cannot change who we are; in changing who we are we are denying ourselves. Also we have to consider the laws that have been set out for our society. Work Cited: Saletan,William The Peculiar Institution.Sunday Book Review(2004):3.The New York Times.Web.26 September 2004. Biological Basis for Homosexuality..Biobasis(2003):7151.Geocities.Web.8 April 2003. The Constitution of the Republic of Palau.Palau Consolidated Lagilation.(1998):Paclii.Web.2 April 1979. Research Evaluation Thoroughness of Research: 4 Extremely thorough, strong thesis supported by research, paper has purpose and not just facts, variety of sources 3 research good overall but some areas need additional research, thesis and research mostly support each other, purpose to research (not just facts) three types of sources 2 Basic research is good, paper has thesis but weak, more facts than purpose, additional research to support thesis needed throughout, two sources used 1 Research is insufficient throughout, very weak or missing thesis, paper mostly facts, insufficient sources Structure and Organization: 4 Information is extremely well organized and easy to understand, correct person used throughout the paper, appropriate transitions used so paragraphs blend together 3 Organization is generally good but some information is misplaced, some error in person, some use of transitions so paragraphs somewhat blend 2 Organization falls apart in several areas but the basic structure of the paper is good, multiple errors in person, few transitions so paper reads fairly choppy 1 Overall structure of the paper is not well thought out causing paper to be unorganized, many errors in person, insufficient or no transitions results in paragraphs not connecting causing choppy reading Development: 4 Excellent introduction with proper thesis placement, each point is clearly identified and explained, strong conclusion which restates purpose, points and has closure 3 Good introduction with proper thesis placement, most points are clearly identified and explained, good conclusion which summarizes and has closure 2 fair introduction which contains thesis, some points are thoroughly explained, while others need development, fair conclusion 1 Weak introduction, most or all points still need a lot of development, poor conclusion causing paper to end abruptly Originality of Voice: 4 Research material has been thoroughly incorporated into the writers own words 3 Most of the paper reflects the tone of the writer 2 A great part of the research material still reflects the tone and style of the original source 1 The research paper reads as if most of it were simply copied from original texts (PLAGIARISM) Citations: 4 Writer has made citations in all areas where they quoted, paraphrased or summarized and effectively sandwiched in 3 Citations were made and sandwiched in effectively for most quotations, paraphrases and summaries, 2 Some citations were made and some attempt to sandwich in 1 No citations were made at all or citations do not fit into original writing Grammar, Mechanics and Spelling: 4 Writer showed care in proofreading; only occasional errors occur 3 Errors are common 2 Paper has multiple errors in every paragraph; sometimes the errors make the paper hard to understand 1 Paper has many errors, making it very difficult to read and understand Works Cited page: title, alphabetized, correct indentation, resources correctly formatted, sufficient number of resources listed, correctly punctuated (4 to 1 points) Format: Format: font size and style correct, 1 inch margins, right side ragged (no justification), title page correctly formatted, paper double spaced, paragraphs indented, reference page correctly titled and formatted, header with last name and page number on top right. (4 to 1 points) Overall Total: *32-29 (A range) Excellent work; well written *28-21 (B range) good; yet additional polish is needed 32=A *20-13 (C range) Fair; effort still needs to be done to finish the 24=B research paper 16=C *12-05 (D range) Poor; all areas of the research paper still need a 8=D lot of work; 4=F *04- 0 (F range) unacceptable; poor attention to rough draft comments, still lacking sufficient research The paper should be mostly written in third person. Only when you discuss personal issues, would you use the first person pronoun. The use of we throughout the paper needs to be changed. Use third person and use nouns more than pronouns. In addition, you have not punctuated the in-text citation properly. Note where the period goes. Your resource page is not correctly formatted either. You also have to be careful not to write your opinion so much. Back up what you say with research.

Babe Ruth :: essays research papers

On February 6, 1895, George Herman Ruth, Jr., was born in his grandparents house in Baltimore, Maryland. Ruth as a young child. Ruth’s dad worked as a bartender and owned his own bar. They spent very little time with George because they worked long hours. Eventually, his parents felt that they couldn’t take care of George, and on June 13, 1902, he was taken to St. Mary’s Industrial School for Boys. His custody was also signed over to the Xaverian Brothers, a Catholic Order of Jesuit Missionaries who ran St. Mary’s. St. Mary’s was both a reformatory and orphanage, which was surrounded by a wall like a prison with guards on duty. George, who was always involved in pranks and fights, was classified as "incorrigible" when he was admitted. The only positive thing that happened from going to St. Mary’s was meeting Brother Mathias. Brother Mathias was the disciplinary guy at St. Mary’s. He spent a lot of time with George. He even helped Ruth learn to be a baseball player. Baseball was a popular game for the boys at St. Mary’s and George played well at a young age. He played all positions on the field, was an excellent pitcher and had the ability to hit the ball very well. By his late teens Ruth had developed into a major league baseball prospect. On February 27, 1914, at the age of nineteen, the Baltimore Orioles signed Babe to his first professional baseball contract. Because Ruth’s parents had signed over custody of him to St. Mary’s, he was supposed to remain at the school until he was twenty-one. To go around this, Dunn, the man who signed him, became Ruth’s legal guardian. Just five months after being signed by the Baltimore Orioles, Babe Ruth was sold to the Boston Red Sox. He made his debut as a major leaguer in Fenway Park on July 11, 1914, pitching against the Cleveland Indians. In the mornings, Ruth would frequent Landers’ Coffee Shop in Boston, and it is here that he met Helen Woodford, a seventeen-year-old waitress. They married on October 17, 1914 at St. Paul’s Roman Catholic Church in Ellicott City, Maryland. As Babe’s career began to blossom and his salary increased, by 1919 he was making $10,000 per year, he and Helen were able to buy a home outside of Boston in Sudbury, Massachusetts. In December of 1919 Babe was sold to the New York Yankees, owned by Colonel Jacob Ruppert and managed by Miller Huggins.

Internet Essay -- essays research papers

"We live in an age of scientific triumph. Science has greatly enlarged human knowledge" (Bishop237) and communication. Despite the recent hype, the Internet is not a new phenomenon. Its roots lie in a collection of computers that were linked together in the 1970s to form the US Department of Defense's communications systems. It is a technology that would be invented today if it hadn't been invented in the past because of the world need for high tecnology. Millions of people worldwide would be using the Internet to share information, make new associations and communicate. Individuals and businesses, from students and journalists, to consultants, programmers and corporate giants are all harnessing the power of the Internet. For many people the Internet would become integral to their operations. The internet would allow users to send and receive data: messages, notes, letters, documents, pictures, video, sound- just about any form of communication, as effortlessly as making a phone call. It is easy to understand why the Internet would become the corporate communications medium. Using the mouse on your computer, would be an uncomplicated point-and-click task whose function would give you acess to send electronic mail for sending and receiving data, and file transfer for copying files from one computer to another. Telnet services allow you to establish connections with systems on the other side of the world as if they were just next d oor. ...

Online Games Is Formative Way of Learning

Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment A research paper Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment A research paper Elizabeth Dunphy, EdD Commissioned by the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment, NCCA  © NCCA 2008 24 Merrion Square, Dublin 2 www. ncca. ie Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Contents Glossary 5 Introduction 6 Section 1: General background Purpose of the paper Assessment and curriculum The Irish context The practice context The legislative context Ethical IssuesTowards a definition of formative assessment Supporting learning and development 8 8 8 9 9 10 11 12 12 Section 2: The nature of early learning Characteristics of early learning The complexity of early learning Key theoretical constructs for assessment Ecological perspectives Socio-cultural perspectives Activity theory Children’s agency Children’s collaboration in learning Intersubjectivity and collaboration Childr en as co-constructors of knowledge Play as a context for formative assessment Emerging approaches to assessment Performance assessment and authentic assessment Summary 13 13 13 3 14 14 14 15 15 17 17 18 18 19 21 Section 3: What to assess in early learning The essentials of learning Dispositions A range of cognitive abilities Emotional well-being Self-concept and sociability Summary 22 22 22 23 23 24 24 Section 4: How to assess early learning A narrative approach to assessment of learning in early childhood Learning stories: A credit-focused approach A fully-contextualised account of learning Methods for collecting information on children’s learning Observing and empathising Conversations with children Clinical interviews Making sense of children’s learningSustaining learning and development through documentation Portfolios Summary 25 25 25 26 27 28 29 29 30 30 31 33 3 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Section 5: Assessment and the practitioner Professio nal knowledge Skills base Ethical considerations Manageability of assessment Tensions 34 34 34 35 35 36 Concluding comments 37 References 38 Table 1: Gardner’s understanding of human development and assessment and Shepard’s guiding principles of assessment 19 4 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Glossary Glossary Agency: Children are active in their own learning.Some ways in which they display their agency is by taking the initiative in learning situations, by observing and becoming involved in ongoing events, or by initiating conversations with others. Authentic assessment: Assessing children on tasks that are part of their ordinary everyday experiences in their early education and care settings. Co-construction: This occurs when children and/or practitioners construct meaning and knowledge about the world together in interaction. Collaborative learning: This is learning that takes place in social contexts and using the resources of the environment.Form ative assessment: This is assessment that informs teaching and learning. It is concerned with the shortterm collection and use of evidence for the guidance of learning. Intersubjectivity: This is the mutual understanding achieved by people in communication. Meta-cognition: This refers to what children think about their own learning, thinking and remembering and how the act of thinking about these processes affect the ways in which children then go about intentionally learning, thinking and remembering. It is a process whereby children become aware of their own thought processes.Pedagogy of mutuality: This perspective recognises that both child and adult bring beliefs and ideas to the learning situation and that discussion and interaction are the means by which a shared frame of reference is established. This results in an exchange of understandings between the child and the practitioner. Pedagogical content knowledge: This is a form of professional understanding which brings togethe r content knowledge and knowledge about pedagogy. It is based on an understanding of how best to organise and present ideas and adapt them in response to the diverse interests and abilities of children.Performance assessment: Assessing children’s early learning and development through observing, recording, and evaluating children’s performance or work. Scaffolding: This refers to the practice of providing guidance and support to children as they move from one level of competence to another. It is a metaphor that is used to describe interactional support for children’s efforts. The assistance offered to the child is sensitive to and contingent on the amount of support needed. Schema: These are patterns of early repeatable behaviours which children engage in and which lead them through a process of co-ordination, to make generalisations.Socio-cultural theories: These are a family of theories that have arisen from the work of Vygotsky and which have in common their emphasis on the role that social and cultural factors play in children’s development and learning. Theory of mind: Children gradually acquire the understanding that other people can hold beliefs about the world that differ from what the child him/herself believes or appears to be true. Transformation of participation: From a socio-cultural perspective, children are seen as developing through a process of participating in activities of their communities, and in doing so their participation changes.They become progressively more expert through engagement in cultural practice and through social interactions that guide them in taking on new roles and responsibilities. 5 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Introduction This research paper, Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment responds to the questions – What’s the purpose of formative assessment in early childhood? What should we assess? How should we assess?The paper is one of four research papers commissioned by the NCCA to set out the theory trail behind the Framework for Early Learning1. This paper is being used to develop guidelines on assessment for inclusion in the Framework. While there are a number of different types and functions of assessment this paper focuses on formative assessment as this offers most potential in terms of assessing to support learning in the day-to-day interactions between adults and children in early childhood. Section 1 of the paper, General background explores the meaning of assessment and its relationship with teaching and learning.Though still very much an emerging area, what we know about how to support early learning and development through the formative assessment process has advanced somewhat in recent years. In many ways the advances in assessment practices in early childhood education and care mirror those in the field of assessment g enerally. In particular, the articulation of the interrelatedness between teaching, learning and assessment and the complexity of the relationships between these processes and curriculum is of as much importance to those concerned with early learning and development, as it is to those concerned with later stages of development.The term assessment, as applied in early childhood education and care, generally implies the intention to provide a rich picture of the ways in which children act, think and learn. In order to orient the discussion about assessment in early childhood education and care, the initial section of the paper outlines the general context in relation to the assessment of early learning and development. While a number of different reasons for assessing early learning and development can be identified, this paper focuses on using formative assessment to support teaching and learning.Section 2, The nature of early learning begins from the premise that in assessing early learning and development it is critical to acknowledge and take account of the nature of early learning and development. We know that in early childhood learning and development is rapid, episodic and holistic. It is also highly influenced by the extent of support that is available for that learning. The adults around the child, and the extent to which they can and do support early learning and development, are crucial elements in determining the extent of learning.Because of their stage of development, children’s abilities in some areas are not yet mature. Their verbal abilities are still emerging, and so assessment of learning and development is often through observation of, and inference from, the children’s actions and reactions in particular situations. It is also essential to acknowledge and take account of the fact that there are considerable cultural variations in children’s experiences. These will result in differences in the course and content of early learning and development. They may also result in considerable differences in how children learn and in how they display their learning.It is important to focus on the breadth of children’s early learning and development. Section 3, What to assess in early learning focuses on assessing children’s dispositions, well-being, cognitive abilities and self-concept and sociability. Assessment in early childhood is shaped by how children from birth to six years learn and develop. A narrative approach offers great potential for making assessment of early learning visible. Documentation of evidence of early learning and development in various ways, using a variety of media and tools, is important for both reflecting on and communicating about children’s achievements.There appears to be general agreement that assessment of early learning and development should be informal, carried out over time, and in the context of the child’s interactions with materials, objects and other people. It should also be authentic in the sense that it should take place in real-life contexts where it is embedded in tasks that children see as significant, meaningful and worthwhile. Informal assessments, carried out as children engage in experiences they see as relevant and meaningful, are likely to produce the best assessments of early learning and development.These issues are considered in Section 4, How to assess early learning. 1 The Framework for Early Learning was renamed Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework in 2009. 6 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Section 5, Assessment and the practitioner discusses the need for professional development for early childhood practitioners. Good assessment practice requires understanding about how children learn and develop, the process of assessment, and skills to manageably assess in ways that respect children and that are e thically sound.The concluding comments clarify and summarise the key messages across the paper. Key points arising from the discussion are presented in shaded boxes throughout the paper. Some of these points relate to key messages arising from theory and research while others are aspirational. 7 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Section 1: General background This section of the paper explores what is meant by assessment in early childhood and discusses its relationship with teaching and learning.Informed by this, a definition of formative assessment is presented. The section concludes by describing the current practice and legislative context in which assessment takes place in Ireland. Purpose of the paper The purpose of this paper is to review issues related to formative assessment of early learning. The findings of the paper will be used to support the development of the assessment guidelines in the Framework for Early Learning2. The paper responds to questions related to the what, why and how of formative assessment in early childhood. Assessment and curriculumWays of assessing children’s learning and development cannot be separated from features of the curriculum (for example, the degree of formality or informality that characterises it), and from views of learners and learning which are embodied in that curriculum. Kelly (1992) identifies the interrelating of curriculum and assessment as †¦ a highly complex and sophisticated matter (p. 16). He argues that the interplay of one with the other is crucial in determining the effectiveness of either. The NCCA is developing a curriculum framework for children between the ages of birth and six years.The Framework embraces a particular view of the child, of learning and of how that learning may be celebrated and extended. In the Framework for Early Learning, learning is presented in four broad and complementary theme s:  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Well-being  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Identity and Belonging  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Communicating  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Exploring and Thinking. Some of the principles related to how children develop and learn which underpin the Framework include the following:  ¦Ã‚ ¦ holistic learning and development  ¦Ã‚ ¦ active learning  ¦Ã‚ ¦ play and first-hand experiences  ¦Ã‚ ¦ relevant and meaningful experiences  ¦Ã‚ ¦ communication and language  ¦ a well-planned and well-resourced outdoor and indoor learning environment. It will be important to identify an approach to assessment that will help practitioners identify and support children’s learning as it relates to the Framework’s principles and themes. Assessment and teaching are now generally considered to be as much inseparable processes in early childhood as they are in any other period of life (Shepard, Kagan and Wurtz, 1998; Bowman et al. , 2001). We now know that children learn by building new understandings on those that they already have ( Wood, 1998).In order to support children’s learning then, practitioners first collect information about children’s well-being, identity and belonging, communication, and exploration and thinking. What children engage with, think, know, feel or can do are all of importance in the assessment process. Reflection on this information helps the practitioner to establish 2 As noted earlier, the Framework for Early Learning was renamed Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework in 2009. 8 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment ow best to advance children’s learning and development. Once this is established the practitioner is then in a position to plan worthwhile, interesting and challenging learning experiences to further progress learning. Clearly then, assessment in early childhood is not something that can be considered independent of either curriculum or learning. It is critica l that the assessment of early learning recognises the unique nature of development in early childhood. It is also critical that we learn from the experiences of countries with a longer history of appraising assessment practices and processes than we have here in Ireland.Working in the context of the United States, where there has been considerable interest in finding appropriate assessment formats for use by early childhood practitioners, Shepard et al. (1998, pp. 8-9) devised a set of principles to guide practice and policy for the assessment of children’s learning. These represented a synthesis of understandings in respect of the most appropriate approaches to assessment in early childhood and the authors advised that they should apply to any situation in which assessments are used to make decisions about children’s learning:  ¦Ã‚ ¦Assessments should bring about benefits for children.  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Assessments should be tailored to a specific purpose and should be reli able, valid and fair for that purpose.  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Assessment policies should be designed recognising that reliability and validity of assessments increases with children’s age.  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Assessments should be age-appropriate in both content and the method of data collection.  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Assessments should be linguistically appropriate, recognising that to some extent all assessments are measures of language.  ¦Ã‚ ¦Parents should be a valued source of assessment information, as well as an audience for assessment results. The Irish context The practice context Assessment in the early years of a child’s life can be viewed from a number of perspectives. David (2003) identifies three perspectives  ¦Ã‚ ¦ the day-to-day informal assessments made by the adults with whom the child comes in contact. In most cases these are early years practitioners who may or may not document such assessments.  ¦Ã‚ ¦ the physical assessments by paediatricians, public health nurses and family doc tors.These aim to identify any physical problems that may impede children’s progression and seek to alleviate them as much as possible.  ¦Ã‚ ¦ diagnostic assessments that can have a range of functions, including identifying children with special educational needs, and helping practitioners to support their learning more effectively. No single type of assessment can serve all of the purposes identified in the perspectives outlined above. Each perspective has a role to play, especially in the case of children with special needs where diagnostic assessments are of paramount importance.Babies, toddlers and young children may experience various types of assessments in early childhood. Some may occur frequently, others occasionally. Multi-agency and multi-disciplinary communication is a critical means by which information related to the child’s development and learning can be shared for the benefit of the child. It is imperative that practitioners in early childhood settin gs have access to any information that is of use in making sure learning opportunities in the setting are appropriate for each individual child.The practice of practitioners building on assessments carried out by other professionals such as therapists can be facilitated by significant levels of inter- and/or multidisciplinary teamwork. 9 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Where children spend some or all of their day in out-of-home settings the practitioners with whom they are in contact engage in ongoing assessment for supporting learning and development.Traditionally, observation is the primary method used in assessing children’s learning and development in the range of early education settings in Ireland. For instance, close observations of children’s play in a range of childcare services in Ireland provide the basis for learning and teaching stories (Brennan, 2004). Many practitio ners use checklists to record aspects of their observations. These are often used to record observations in relation to the assessment of children’s skills and understandings, particularly in the area of identifying children with special educational needs and in supporting their learning and development.In relation to their use of assessment practices to support children’s learning in curriculum areas, only about half of infant teachers who participated in Phase 1 of the Primary Curriculum Review (NCCA, 2005) reported that they used observation and about three-quarters reported using documentation. Infant teachers in primary schools also use a range of developmental and diagnostic assessments, for example, in the area of early literacy, to assess specific aspects of children’s development and learning. (See Section 4 for a more extensive discussion on observation as an assessment method. )Increasingly there is an awareness that children live different childhoods : their social, cultural, linguistic and ecological experiences and opportunities differ and all of this influences assessment. Practitioners who are in daily contact with children are in a good position to familiarise themselves with these diverse aspects of children’s lives and of their possibilities for early learning and development. Consequently, on a day-to-day basis, the practitioner’s own assessments are the ones that have the most potential in terms of planning for children’s learning and of making judgements regarding children’s progress.Using assessment for this purpose is the central focus of this paper. Key point A range of assessments are appropriate in assessing children’s learning. The focus of the assessment depends on its purpose. The central focus of this paper is on formative assessment where practitioners’ own assessments are used to support and plan for children’s learning. The legislative context There is a long history of informal assessment of children’s learning in Ireland. However, for various reasons early childhood practitioners now find it necessary to document learning in ways that were not general practice previously.Both legislative requirements and practitioners’ own desires to better understand early learning and how best to extend it, are to the fore in encouraging the documentation of information related to children’s early learning and development. In relation to young children attending primary schools, The Education Act (Department of Education and Science, 1998) requires principals and teachers to regularly evaluate students and periodically report the results of the evaluation to the students and their parents. The implications of this requirement for teachers and schools include  ¦ developing assessment procedures which provide an accurate account of children’s progress and achievement  ¦Ã‚ ¦ creating and maintaining records of childrenâ €™s progress and achievement while they are attending the school  ¦Ã‚ ¦ providing parents with assessment reports which contain accurate and clearly accessible information about their children’s progress and achievement (NCCA, 2007a, p. 95). The Equal Status Act (The Equality Authority, 2000) has implications for the assessment policy in early education settings.In particular, it requires settings to be aware of the effects of context, culture and language in assessing children’s learning and development. 10 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment The Education for Persons with Special Educational Needs Act (EPSEN) (Department of Health and Children, 2004) requires that where a child has or may have special educational needs an assessment of those needs should be carried out. With children not attending formal schooling this is the responsibility of the relevant health board.Where th e child is a student then the Act requires schools to identify when a child is not benefiting from the education programme on offer and to investigate the reasons behind this. The school, or in the case of a child not at school the relevant health board, is mandated to ensure that an individual education plan (IEP) for an appropriate education for the child is drawn up in consultation with the child’s parents. The Act outlines the statutory requirements for educational planning for children with special educational needs (SEN).It requires that a multi-disciplinary assessment be carried out in situations where it is considered that the child may have special educational needs. An IEP must then be prepared for each child identified as having such needs. Discussion and agreement regarding the abilities, skills and talents as well as the nature and degree of the child’s special educational needs, together with an analysis of how these needs affect the child’s learni ng and development is required. The plan must include these and must also specify goals for learning and development for the child over a period not exceeding ne year. It must also specify the supports that need to be put in place to enable the child to participate in and benefit from education. The Disability Act (Department of Health and Children, 2005) enables provision for the assessment of health and education needs for persons with disabilities, arising from their situation. The Act provides for access for people with disabilities to health and education services. In relation to educational needs, Part 2 Section 8 (9) states that where an assessment is applied for it must be carried out by or at the request of an assessment officer who then identifies the need for the provision of an educational service to the child, he or she shall, in case the child is enrolled in a school, refer the matter to the principal of that school†¦in any other case, refer the matter to the coun cil for the purposes of an assessment. The Child Care (Pre-School Services) (No 2) Regulations (Department of Health and Children, 2006) set out the regulations and requirements pertaining to all aspects of the operation of pre-school settings. Regulation 5 explicitly requires that:A person carrying on a pre-school service shall ensure that each child’s learning, development and well-being is facilitated within the daily life of the service through the provision of the appropriate opportunities, experiences, activities, interaction, materials and equipment, having regard to the age and state of development of the child and the child’s cultural context. To fulfil this requirement it is necessary for practitioners to engage in making important judgements about children’s learning and development and how best to extend and enrich it. By implication this involves the practitioner in assessing learning and development.Indeed, the explanatory guide directs practitione rs to be pro-active in ensuring that appropriate action is taken to address each child’s individual needs with his/her parents and following consultation, where appropriate, with other relevant services (p. 39). While there are other pieces of legislation which impact on aspects of assessment such as the transfer of assessment information between settings, the focus of this paper is on the actual process of using assessment to support early learning and development. How best to comply with the above demands in ways that are respectful to hildren; capture the complexity of early learning; and are helpful in planning future learning experiences has now become a key issue for consideration for early childhood practitioners. Key point Assessment takes place within a particular legislative framework in Ireland. Ethical Issues The nature of the power relations between babies, toddlers and young children and the practitioners with whom they come into contact needs to be acknowledged in the assessment situation. The power of the adult and the relative dependency of children make it imperative that ethical issues are given serious consideration by practitioners.Some of these issues are discussed later in Section 5. 11 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Towards a definition of formative assessment Bowman, Donovan and Burns (2001) suggest that the term assessment, as applied in early childhood education and care, generally implies the intention to provide a rich picture of the ways in which children act, think and learn. Such a picture focuses on the individual’s learning, is built up over time and provides evidence of learning in a number of different contexts.In relation to its importance, they argue that: Assessment has an important role to play in revealing a child’s prior knowledge, development of concepts and ways of interacting with and understanding the worl d so that teachers can choose a pedagogical approach and curricular materials that will support the child’s further learning and development. (p. 259) Pelligrini (1998) describes assessment in early childhood as being about the collection of information about children. This is generally understood to encompass a number of other processes besides collecting. For example, Lally nd Hurst (1992) describe how assessment also involves practitioners in documenting, analysing and reflecting on the information collected, and using this to plan and support further learning. This definition is very similar to that used in Assessment in the Primary School Curriculum: Guidelines for Schools (NCCA, 2007a). While similar methods may be useful in both early childhood settings and in primary school settings, in early childhood assessment particular account needs to be taken of the characteristics of babies, toddlers and young children and to the unique ways in which these children learn.Early childhood assessment focuses specifically on finding out what children are interested in, understand, think, feel, and are able to do. It seeks to document this information in order to understand children’s thinking and learning styles, to chart children’s progress and to support further learning. It is developmental in that it focuses on processes rather than on content or product. Key point Assessment of early learning provides a rich picture of children’s learning by collecting and documenting information. Through reflecting on and using this information, children’s future learning is supported and enhanced.Supporting learning and development Assessment in early childhood has been identified as having a number of functions – ipsative, diagnostic, summative, evaluative and informative (Wood and Attfield, 2005). Assessment in early childhood has enormous potential to support learning and development. A recent large-scale longitudinal study of ear ly learning settings in England confirmed the importance of assessment in meeting children’s needs and in supporting their cognitive progress (Siraj-Blatchford, Sylva, Muttock, Gilden and Bell, 2002).The ultimate purpose of assessment in early childhood is to make learning more interesting, enjoyable and successful for children. Drummond (1993) suggests that assessment must work for children: We can use our assessments to shape and enrich our curriculum, our interactions, our provision as a whole: we can use our assessments as a way of identifying what children will be able to learn next, so that we can support and extend that learning. Assessment is part of our daily practice in striving for quality. (p. 13) Key pointAssessment in early childhood promotes the extension and enrichment of children’s early learning and development. The following section looks at the nature of early learning and the implications for assessing early learning. 12 Aistear: the Early Childhoo d Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Section 2: The nature of early learning This section of the paper discusses the characteristics of early learning and identifies some key theoretical constructs that guide the teaching, learning and assessment processes during early childhood.Theoretical considerations have been influential in shaping new and emerging approaches to assessment and the most salient of these are discussed in relation to their implications for the assessment of early learning and development. Characteristics of early learning During the early childhood period children’s learning across the various dimensions of development (for example, physical, motor, linguistic, emotional) is greater than at any other period, but is also highly variable across the dimensions.It also occurs very rapidly, is episodic in nature and is very susceptible to environmental conditions (Shepard et al. , 1998). These factors con tribute to making the assessment of early learning and development very challenging. The complexity of early learning We have a great deal of evidence that early learning and development is both extensive and complex (e. g. Drummond, 1993; Bowman et al. , 2001; Carr, 2002). The research paper, Children’s early learning and development (French, 2007) provides information on many facets of early learning and development.Early childhood educators have consistently sought to convey the extent of this complexity and over the years they have provided evidence of exactly how much learning children can demonstrate, provided that it is approached in appropriate ways. For instance, Donaldson (1983) clearly demonstrates how children display different levels of proficiency/learning in different contexts. In her seminal work, Children’s Minds, she reviewed research that illustrated the dramatic effect of the inclusion or omission of a single adjective in questioning children on so- called ‘logical’ tasks.She argues (p. 59) that the young child †¦ first makes sense of situations (and perhaps especially those involving human intentions) and then uses this kind of understanding to help him make sense of what is said to him. Looking not at what children say but at what they do, the work of Athey (1990) and that of Nutbrown (1999) clearly demonstrates how, as children pursue certain schema for considerable periods of time, these can be identified and supported by practitioners. Early learning is seen, for instance in Athey’s work, to have its own recognisable and valid characteristics.Nutbrown (1999) draws out the implication of that work for the assessment of children’s pathways and patterns of development and interest. This work along with that of Drummond (1993) exemplifies vividly how much of children’s learning there is to see if practitioners are open to seeing it by looking beyond what children can tell us and instead o bserving what they actually can do. Play provides an important vehicle and context for this work. Key point During the early childhood period, children’s learning is highly complex and is made visible through assessing carefully and thoughtfully.Key theoretical constructs for assessment Dahlberg, Moss and Pence (1999) observe that in recent years, especially in Western Europe, there has been a process of rethinking childhood that has led to new constructions of the child. They locate this process in a number of interrelated developments with respect to learning theories; philosophy; psychology; sociology; and a concurrent questioning of previous understandings in these fields. From this post-modern perspective, the young child is seen, from the start of life, as a construction of his or her own world.This is very similar to the perspective adopted by Malaguzzi (1993), the founder of the world-renowned Reggio Emilia pre-schools in Italy. Dahlberg et al. (1999) describe how in Reggio Emilia pre-schools, the young child is understood as a unique, complex individual who is rich in the sense that he or she is equipped from the start to engage fully and actively in their world. A wider discussion of these perspectives follows. 13 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessmentEcological perspectives Ecological and socio-cultural theories of learning have largely dominated explanations of development and learning in early childhood in recent years. For instance, ecological (Bronfenbrenner 1979) and bioecological (Bronfenbrenner and Morris, 1998) models of human development have been influential in efforts to understand learning and development and associated processes such as assessment. These models emphasise the role in human development of both the environment and of processes.The research paper, Perspectives on the relationship between education and care (Hayes, 2007) in turn highligh ts both the importance of care and education in facilitating children’s overall development. From this perspective, human development is seen as taking place as a result of progressively more complex reciprocal interactions (p. 996) between the young child and the people, objects and symbols in the environment. To be effective the interactions must occur on a fairly regular basis over extended periods of time (p. 996).These enduring forms of interaction (proximal processes) are seen as key to learning and development and we must study these interactions over time and alongside the observation of behaviour in natural settings. From an ecologicaltheory perspective, Bronfenbrenner (1979) describes how the learner can participate in increasingly more complex learning situations and in doing so take increasingly greater responsibility in the learning situation. The perspective also emphasises the agency or active nature of children in their interactions with adults, objects and sy mbols.The model can be used to draw attention to the interpersonal and situational aspects of assessment, for example: the importance of the personal characteristics of the child and the adult in the assessment context, the importance of reciprocal interactions between child and adult and the importance of assessing children’s level of engagement with the objects and symbols provided in the immediate environment. Thus the ecological approach emphasises assessment of children engaged in real tasks in natural settings.This perspective sits very well with the socio-cultural perspective that we look at next. Socio-cultural perspectives In the past two decades socio-cultural perspectives, that is perspectives that highlight the social and cultural nature of learning, are increasingly used to explain the ways that learning and development occur in early childhood (Anning, Cullen and Fleer, 2004). Socio-cultural theories of learning suggest that the process of learning is as much a social construction as it is an individual one. Rogoff (1998, p. 91) describes development as transformation of participation. Transformation occurs at a number of levels: for instance, the learner changes at the level of their involvement, in the role they play in the learning situation, in the ability they demonstrate in moving flexibly from one learning context to another, and in the amount of responsibility taken in the situation. Activity theory also concentrates on the social aspects of learning. Activity theory Activity theory, which is a development of aspects of Vygotsky’s work (See for example, Engerstrom et al. 1999), is also being highlighted as a theoretical framework that may be useful in explaining the complexity of learning–related issues in early childhood. Fleer, Anning and Cullen (2004) explain how activity theory, in common with Rogoff’s discussion of socio-cultural theory, focuses on the study of the complexity of human behaviour in social g roups and in specific contexts. The theory is premised on the notion that the contextual features of a task contribute to †¦ performance on that task (p. 178).Furthermore, children use tools such as language, a particular action or resource to mediate knowledge in interactions with others. But the cultural features of the context in which they use these tools influences the way activities are performed and understood. Key point If socio-cultural theory informs our understanding of how children learn, it also by implication informs our understanding of assessment. 14 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessmentWhat all of these perspectives hold in common is their emphasis on the socially constructed nature of learning and of assessment. There are a number of other important constructs that also unite them to greater or lesser degrees. These include children’s agency, the importance of collaborati on, and the co-construction of meaning and knowledge. These constructs are particularly helpful when thinking about the quality of the interactions between practitioners and young learners. Quality interactions are increasingly recognised as central to pedagogy (Black and Wiliam 1998a; Siraj-Blatchford et al. , 2002).The next sub-section discusses these ideas in some detail, and in doing so, draws out the implications for assessment practices in early childhood. Children’s agency Bruner (1999a) argues that advances in the study of human development provide us with a profile of the child as an active, intentional being; with knowledge as ‘man-made’ rather than simply there; with ways to negotiate with others in the construction of knowledge. (See French (2007) for more detailed information. ) A crucial aspect of identity and self-esteem is that the child sees him/her self as an agent in control of his/her own actions.Some ways in which children display their agenc y is by taking the initiative in learning situations, by observing and becoming involved in ongoing events, or by initiating conversations with others. Agency is about taking more control of your own mental activity (Bruner, 1996, p. 87). Bruner argues that the agentive mind is not only active in nature but it seeks out dialogue and discourse with other active minds (p. 93). Bruner (1999a) identifies efforts to recognise children’s perspectives in the processes of learning as highly significant and he uses the term pedagogy of mutuality (p. 3) to describe the pedagogy that arises from such endeavours. It is premised on the belief that children are able to reason; to make sense (both alone and in discourse with others); to reflect and to hold theories about self and about the world. The practitioner, according to Bruner (p. 12) is concerned with understanding what the child thinks and how he/she arrives at what he/she believes. He identifies four key research constructs which have enriched this perspective on teaching and learning (and by implication assessment):  ¦Ã‚ ¦Intersubjectivity – how the child develops the ability to read other minds  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Theory of mind – the child’s grasp of another’s intentional state  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Meta-cognition – what the child thinks about learning, remembering thinking  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Collaborative learning – how children, through talk and discussion, explain and revise their thinking. These theoretical ideas are important also in the analysis of assessment as it relates to early learning and development. Children’s collaboration in learning is also important and this is considered below. Key pointThe active role which children themselves play in their interactions with others needs to be recognised and taken into account in any assessment of learning. Children’s collaboration in learning Zone of proximal development Vygotsky’s theory of learning (1978; 1986) has bee n highly influential in helping to explain the processes of learning in early childhood. In particular, his notion of the zone of proximal development has provided the foundation and potential for some of the most important recent initiatives in the assessment of individual children’s learning (Lunt, 2000).Berk and Winsler (1995) describe Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development (ZPD) as a dynamic zone of sensitivity in which learning and cognitive development occur. Tasks that children cannot do individually but they can do with help from others invoke mental functioning that are currently in the process of developing, rather than those that have already matured (p. 26). It appears that Vygotsky originally introduced the ZPD in the context of arguing against intelligence testing which he felt was seeking to assess something static and did not reflect the dynamic and ever-changing 5 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and developm ent through formative assessment nature of human cognition. Adult-child collaboration within the ZPD is critical for effective teaching and learning interactions because it is within such interactions that the practitioner identifies how the child may be assisted in learning and what the child is capable of doing with appropriate support. The practitioner also has the opportunity to assess the impact of such support on the child’s progress.This approach to assessment effectively merges the teaching and assessment processes. It is commonly referred to as dynamic assessment. When Feuerstein (1979) first proposed this form of assessment he was envisioning, in essence, a joint problem-solving situation during which the practitioner gauges the nature and extent of assistance required by the child in order to solve the problem. Children’s responsiveness to appropriate instructional interactions is a key factor in dynamic assessment situations and it is now considered to be a n important predictor of learning potential (Berk and Winsler, 1995).Lidz (1991) emphasises that: The focus of dynamic assessment is on the assessor’s ability to discover the means of facilitating the learning of the child, not on the child’s demonstration of ability to the assessor (as cited in Berk and Winsler, 1995, p. 139). Dynamic assessment is considered by Berk and Winsler (ibid. ) as especially useful for making visible the learning potential of those children whose early experiences do not include experiences that prepare them for learning in group/institutional settings. (For a comprehensive discussion of dynamic assessment and emerging approaches to such assessment, see Lunt, 2000).The concept of scaffolding is often associated with ZPD and it is this which we turn our attention to next. Key point Practitioner’s interactions with children often incorporate both teaching and assessment. It is critical that the practitioner is capable of engaging certai n interactive skills in such situations since these will be necessary to ensure optimal learning and development. Scaffolding Effective scaffolding (Wood, Bruner and Ross, 1976), where the adult guides the child’s learning in the ZPD, is an important feature of the engagement of the child in joint problem solving.Here, the child interacts with the practitioner while the two are jointly trying to reach a goal and this results in the establishment of intersubjectivity (Newson and Newson, 1975). Intersubjectivity refers to the process whereby two participants achieve a shared understanding whilst undertaking a task that they approach from different perspectives. The parties co-construct meanings in activities that involve higher–order thinking (Vygotsky, 1978). Rogoff (1998) emphasises the ongoing mutual process of understanding, which is inherent in joint problemsolving interactions.She also draws attention to the institutional and cultural aspects of joint problemsolvin g activities. She distinguishes between her socio-cultural approach to studying experts’ support of novices’ learning and other approaches which focus on particular techniques such as scaffolding. Rogoff distinguishes between the concepts of ‘scaffolding’ and of working in the zone of proximal development. She describes scaffolding as a specific technique focusing on what experts provide for novices; it focuses on the tutor’s efforts as they relate contingently to the novice’s successes and failures (p. 699).However, working in the zone of proximal development is, in her view, wider than scaffolding. It focuses on the processes of communication that builds a continually evolving mutual perspective. It is a way of describing an activity in which someone with greater expertise assists someone else †¦ to participate in socio-cultural activities in a way that exceeds what they could do otherwise (p. 699). Mutual contribution is an essential consideration so interactions and communicative and collaborative processes all form part of the picture, rather than just the child’s successes or errors as in scaffolding.Rogoff argues that The concept of scaffolding does not refer to the institutional and cultural context in which it occurs, whereas the concept of zone of proximal development requires attention to processes of communication and the relation of the interaction at hand to institutional, cultural and historic processes. (p. 700) 16 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Key point Supporting children’s learning is an important part of assessment. For the practitioner this is often far more complex than simply applying a technique such as scaffolding.Learners make an equally important contribution. Intersubjectivity and collaboration are important in scaffolding children’s learning and we look at these two concepts b elow. Intersubjectivity and collaboration Rogoff (1990; 1998) has illustrated how children make an important contribution in collaborating in the process of establishing joint understanding. Children, including infants in the first year of life, can sometimes be observed to be deliberately taking the lead in collaborative activities by seeking information or by directing activities.Rogoff’s analysis, consistent with Vygotsky, suggests that the intersubjectivity as achieved by adults and babies is different from that achieved by adults and children who can use linguistic (verbal and gestural) communication to achieve mutual understandings. This then has implications for the assessment process across the age range birth to six years. Working in the zone of proximal development with a toddler will include the adult engaging in the demonstration of objects, collaborative activity with objects and the focusing of the child’s attention.Rogoff (1998) points out that the child , for example in seeking to help the adult in everyday chores, very often initiates such activity. Older toddlers and young children will often seek to assert their independence in doing a particular task themselves but Rogoff’s analysis of the research suggests that they also will actively seek assistance when they are stuck. Recently a question has arisen about the capacity of early years settings to support the kinds of relationships and shared experiences that enable children to engage in the types of social participation that promote optimum learning (Parker-Rees, 2007).The research indicates that the nature and scope of babies, toddlers and children’s interactions with parents, the playful quality of these interactions and the extent to which relationships can influence reciprocal imitative behaviour (an important process of learning especially in the first year) must all be fully appreciated by practitioners and be seen as desirable conditions for learning in th e setting. Key point The concept of collaboration is key when considering assessment from a socio-cultural perspective.In collaborating, the child and the practitioner are involved in each other’s thinking processes through shared efforts. In order to assess certain aspects of learning by babies, toddlers and young children, it is essential for adults to collaborate with the children in order to understand their learning. The co-construction of knowledge is supported by intersubjectivity and collaboration and it is to this that we next draw our attention. Children as co-constructors of knowledgeIn recent times the term ‘co-construction’ has featured prominently in influential early childhood publications, although it was implicit in the last century in the work of Dewey (1933) who emphasised the ways in which children construct their learning by actively engaging in, and shaping, their experiences and environments. For instance, Jordan (2004) discusses the term s caffolding and compares it with coconstruction. The specific pattern of interaction that characterised early accounts of scaffolding, according to Jordan (ibid. and Rogoff (1998), generally maintained the power and control with the adult. They argue that the term co-construction emphasises the child as a powerful player in his/her own learning. An example of how this process of co-construction works in practice is illustrated in the discussions of the Reggio Emilia approach to early childhood education (Edwards, Gandini and Forman, 1998). Co-construction refers to adults and children making meaning and knowledge together (MacNaughton and Williams, 2004).Co-construction recognises the child’s expertise and in order to understand this, the practitioner needs to interact with the child and become aware of the child’s thoughts and thereby to establish intersubjectivity. 17 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through f ormative assessment Recent research (Siraj-Blatchford et al. , 2002) also highlighted the process of co-construction and found it to be a key factor in terms of promoting children’s learning.Essentially a co-construction perspective emphasises understanding and meaning on the part of both child and adult, rather than the acquisition of facts by the child. Jordan (2004) concludes that the two concepts, scaffolding and co-construction have different applicability depending on whether the goal of the practitioner is the exploration of thinking or the achievement of pre-specified learning goals. Key point Co-construction of meaning and knowledge is central to teaching, learning and assessment and it occurs when both child and practitioner engage together in achieving mutual understanding.Play as a context for formative assessment As this paper demonstrates, children’s learning is complex and assessment approaches need to take cognisance of this. In early childhood, this co mplexity is abundantly evident as children engage in play. The importance of play to young children’s learning and development is a key principle for early childhood practitioners (Wood, 2004). Assessing children’s understandings and progress as they play, either alone or with others, is a crucial activity in early year’s settings. In assessing the child’s learning through play the adult can use a range of approaches and methods.Practitioners make assessments by focusing on children’s play interests, their levels of engagement and participation. They make assessments while skilfully engaging with children in play. Skilful engagement includes intervention in play as and when appropriate. Such interventions may serve to initiate or sustain interactions, thereby leading to shared talking and thinking. They may also involve scaffolding children in order to enable them to reach their potential at a particular time. (See the research paper, Play as a con text for early learning and development (Kernan, 2007) for detailed information on play. Children’s learning is a complex matter and assessment approaches need to take cognisance of this. The paper now looks at emerging approaches to assessment, all of which take account of play as a vehicle for learning and development. Key point Assessing children’s understandings and progress as they play, either alone or with others, is a crucial activity in early year’s settings. Emerging approaches to assessment The rationale for using assessment to enrich and extend children’s learning can be located in recent developments in society’s understandings of learning in the early years.For instance, in recent decades there have been very big changes in our understandings of human nature and of learning. Gardner (1999, p. 91) reviews what he describes as several lines of evidence from the cognitive, neural, and developmental sciences which point to a far more capa cious view of the human mind and of human learning than that which informed earlier conceptions. He presents a picture of assessment that builds on the newly emerging picture of human development (see Table 1). Gardner’s principles complement the earlier principles presented by Shepard et al. 1998). (See pages 16-17. ) 18 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Table 1: Gardner’s understanding of human development and assessment and Shepard’s guiding principles of assessment Features of human development Features of assessment In understanding human development, there is Assessment should  ¦Ã‚ ¦ be simple, natural and occurring on a reliable schedule evidence for the existence of multiple faculties or ‘intelligences’  ¦Ã‚ ¦ have ecological validity (be done in situations hat are real)  ¦Ã‚ ¦ recognition of vast individual differences;  ¦Ã‚ ¦  ¦Ã‚ ¦ the desirab ility of assessing learning in context utilise instruments that are intelligence-fair and not dependent on language or logical faculties  ¦Ã‚ ¦ locating competence and skill ‘outside the head of the individual’.  ¦Ã‚ ¦ use multiple measures  ¦Ã‚ ¦ be sensitive to individual differences, developmental levels and forms of expertise  ¦Ã‚ ¦ use materials which are intrinsically interesting and motivating  ¦Ã‚ ¦ yield information to be used for the learner’s benefit.  ¦Ã‚ ¦ a necessity for a developmental perspective  ¦Ã‚ ¦ n emergence of a symbol-system perspective  ¦Ã‚ ¦ Performance and authentic assessment incorporate some of Gardner’s ideas and a discussion of these follows below. Performance assessment and authentic assessment Emerging approaches to assessment take account of developments in theories about learning and about human development. Performance assessment is currently seen as an approach that is particularly appropriate for asses sing many aspects of early learning and development (see Bowman et al. , 2001). Meisels (1999) describes performance assessment as assessments that are ounded on the notion that learning and development can only be assessed over time and in interactions with materials, objects and other people. In this approach to assessment, the expectation is that tasks must be practical, realistic and challenging for children (Torrance, 2001). Performance assessment implies observation of children as they undertake a number of routine tasks in early learning settings. According to Meisels (1999, p. 58) these should meet a number of criteria:  ¦Ã‚ ¦ tasks should bring together various skills that children display and demonstrate during the course of interactions  ¦ children should be assisted to perform to the very best of their ability  ¦Ã‚ ¦ tasks should be guided by developmental standards  ¦Ã‚ ¦ tasks should engage children in reflection about their work and in articulating their ideas about their learning. Authentic assessment is a type of performance assessment. It is described as compatible with the prevailing philosophy that emphasises whole child development (Puckett and Black 2000, p. 6). This philosophy explains development across a range of domains (for example social, moral, emotional, language and cognitive).It also recognises the diversity of early learning and the role of environmental factors in shaping that learning. From an authentic assessment perspective, curriculum and assessment are interwoven and emphasise relevant and meaningful experiences. Assessment focuses on what children do, and on how they do it in the context of meaningful tasks. Authentic assessment has a number of identifiable features (Puckett and Black, 2000, p. 7), including the following: 19 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment  ¦Ã‚ ¦ an emphasis on emerging development  ¦ a focus on the youn g child’s individual strengths and weaknesses  ¦Ã‚ ¦ is based on principles of child growth and development  ¦Ã‚ ¦ emanates from logical, meaningful, relevant and applicable curricula  ¦Ã‚ ¦ is performance based  ¦Ã‚ ¦ recognises different intelligence and learning styles  ¦Ã‚ ¦ is reflective and analytic  ¦Ã‚ ¦ is ongoing and occurs in many contexts  ¦Ã‚ ¦ is collaborative with learners, parents and others involved in children’s learning  ¦Ã‚ ¦ is interwoven with teaching. Key point Authentic assessment is compatible with a whole child perspective on learning and development. 20 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum FrameworkSupporting early learning and development through formative assessment Summary Where the purpose of assessment is to promote further learning, assessment becomes a particular type of teaching strategy. (See Marshall and Drummond, 2006). Assessment from a socio-cultural perspective takes account of the key learning processes as de termined by socio-cultural theory. In particular, collaboration and the importance in that process of the establishment of mutual understanding (intersubjectivity) need to be emphasised, as do ideas about children’s agency and those related to the co-construction of knowledge and understanding.An understanding of the different processes that contribute to children’s learning, and the types of interactions that promote it are key to understanding how such learning can best be assessed. The recognition of these processes at work is also central in conceptualising assessment approaches that take account of and display the key role of children themselves in the assessment process. Authentic assessment reflects new understandings about learning and about human development, and recognises the holistic, contextualised and dynamic nature of learning in early childhood.Having discussed the interconnection between how children learn and approaches to assessment, the next section looks at what to assess in children’s early learning and development. 21 Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework Supporting early learning and development through formative assessment Section 3: What to assess in early learning This section of the paper identifies aspects of learning that are of concern in assessing children’s early learning and development. The challenges of assessing a wide range of learning and development in a balanced way are discussed.The essentials of learning Skills and knowledge are important in respect of early learning. However, increasingly there are calls for a wider view of what it is that children are learning in the years from birth to six, and for explicitness about other areas of children’s development that are now recognised as critical for long term success. For instance, Bertram and Pascal (2002) identify social competence, emotional well-being and dispositions to learn as core constituent elements of the effectiv e learner.In relation to each of these areas they identify elements that characterise the effective learner. Indicators related to disposition include independence, creativity, self-motivation and resilience. Those related to emotional literacy include empowerment, connectedness, and positive self-esteem. Those related to social competence inco